tamarackmedia.org
Professional Video Production

The cinema is an art show. He exhibits in public a film, that is to say, a work composed of a sequence of pictures in motion projected onto a carrier, usually a white screen, and mostly accompanied by a soundtrack . Since its invention, cinema has become both a popular art , an entertainment , an industry and media . It can also be used for purposes of propaganda , of teaching or scientific research . In French, we commonly refer to as the ” seventh art “, according to the expression of critical Ricciotto Canudo in the 1920s 1 .
A film is composed of a series of pictures projected generally at a rate of 24 frames per second. It is the rapid succession of these images, differing on average slightly from each other, which, by illusion , provides a moving image to the viewer, including reproducing the movements and trajectories of real life. The persistence of vision , the phi effect and techniques of film projection to allow humans to see this series of discrete images in a visual continuum.
The term “film” is the apocope of ” cinema “(Greek κίνημα / Kinema “movement” and γράφειν / graphein , ‘write’), name given by Leon Bouly in 1892 to the projection device which he placed the patent. This polysemic word can describe the art, technique, or, by metonymy , the room in which it is intended. Particularly in this latter sense that the term itself is often colloquially abbreviated to “film” or “flicks”.
If the films are cultural artifacts from a culture specific which they reflect, their distribution is potentially universal through the development of techniques that have enabled global reach of the films, the subtitling or dubbing of dialogues and by their availability in domestic formats ( tape , DVD , Internet , etc..). They are also likely to become pure commercial products, in the sense that the sums drawn by this industry can be huge, despite production costs, given the potentially large number of paying spectators.

For film , you can hear the room or building where movies are released. Named “seventh art” , the film can be regarded as entertainment or as an art 6 .
Also means cinema projection images, animated or not they appear on a screen , and show it publicly. In this it differs from other audiovisual media such as television or the Internet , whose uses are typically domestic. To ensure a certain visual quality necessary for public viewing on screen, standard technical criteria have been defined and the halls of the commercial must meet (in France, they are defined by the TSA ). These criteria limit the production techniques and projection. Thus, any document is not filmed in the cinema. But the advent of home theater tends to make this difference even more blurred.
The term film can also define the art of how to make shots , usually allied with her ​​. We can illustrate this by the popular expression meaning “to make movies.”
On the other hand, the term film can be applied to a set of films with a common 7 . Generally, the word is completed by a factor that indicates a genre (eg horror films ), a geographical or cultural origin (the Australian film ), a school (the neo-realist cinema ) or a technique (the silent film ).
Finally, the word cinema can also speak generally of all activities related to the movies 8 . This is such a sense that can take the term in the terms ” film history “,” the film industry “or” news film. ”
History

Main article: History of Cinema .
Cinema was born gradually in the second half of the xix th century 9 , with the development of photography . Nobody ever able to state precisely a “birth date” film because it is more an accumulation of experiments and advanced than an invention. Some, however, attributed the invention of cinema to Lumiere brothers , creators of cinema in 1895 . However, before that date, pioneers like Louis Aimé Augustin Le Prince , William Henry Fitton , Thomas Edison and Emile Reynaud had innovated in the field of the moving image. Since that time he has evolved from shooting to projection techniques were perfected. We note several important steps, such as précinéma , the silent film or the appearance of color , but the timing was not linear in appearance, and these changes are gradual and tangled.
Précinéma
The experiments of Muybridge and Louis Le Prince

Photographs aligned

Proceedings of Zoopraxiscope

View the entire of a scene in the garden of Roundhay
To describe everything that happened in the history of cinema, before 1895 , is called ” précinéma ” 10 . The term was invented by some film historians photographic styling for “early forms of cinema, that is to say those that precede the industrial phase. In fact, the précinéma is the leading cinema but this film is already 11 . ”
Louis Aimé Augustin Le Prince is probably one of the first men to set up a moving image. He invented a camera in the first of seven lenses, but it was not a great success: each lens took a picture of a slightly different angle from the last. However, shortly after he created a new camera with one lens. He succeeded in turning a stage at Roundhay garden , which is the first film in the world, in 1888 12 . However, he disappeared mysteriously in 1890, and the history of cinema itself wrote without him.
To decompose a movement, following a dialogue about the shape of a horse race, in 1876 , Eadweard Muybridge develops an experience: it has twelve cameras along the track of the park Palo Alto that automatically trigger during the passage of horse 13 . Thus, it gets broken down into several motion pictures, which allows him to prove that part of the gallop of the horse is done four hooves off the ground. It then creates the Zoopraxiscope which reconstructs the movement itself. A few years later, in 1882 , Etienne-Jules Marey simplifies the system, thus creating the photographic gun , it will improve six years later under the name Chronophotographe 14 .
Innovations related to photographic media in succession, the film becomes so obvious to many researchers. Note in 1891 the Kinetograph designed by William KL Dickson was then used to Edison . The Kinetograph was a camera shooting whose films were not screened but looked through the kinetoscope . The system used sheets of celluloid , provided by John Carbutt , which wrapped themselves around a cylinder, to improve the quality of the recording of the image 15 . They were shot in the Black Maria by Dickson, and dealt with themes of everyday life: Fred Ott’s Sneeze , Carmencita , Boxing Cats , … but even that only lasted a few seconds.
Then, on 12 February 1892 , Leon Bouly filed a patent for a system he calls “Cynématographe Bouly” 16 : the device used a non-perforated film. In 1893 , the World’s Columbian Exposition , Muybridge gave several projections of paying Science of Animal Locomotion , for which he uses Zoopraxiscope 17 . Thus Muybridge will pay the first screening of the history of film 13 . That same year, Edison introduced the Kinetoscope to the public at the Chicago Exposition, but also in Europe where he won wide acclaim, and many inventors try to develop a projection device of moving images from the kinetoscope , using a magic lantern 18 . Indeed, Edison had not filed an international patent. Of these, more successful, including Eugene Lauste his Eidoloscope or the Lumiere brothers who file a patent for their cinema on 13 February 1895 .
Cinematography: film hits

The Lumiere brothers , considered in France as the creators of cinema
After several films in 1894 and have conducted private screenings in 1895 , the Lumiere brothers decided to organize the Dec. 28 at the Salon Indien Grand Café in Paris, paid a public screening program including The Sprinkler watered , The Baby Meals , Leaving the Lumière factory in Lyon or The Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat Station 19 . The first day, only thirty-three spectators (including two journalists) come to enjoy the various short films 20 . Word of mouth helps, in a week the queue reached the Rue Caumartin. The cinematography is so successful later that Thomas Edison bought the invention of Armat and Jenkins , the Phantoscope, it renames Vitascope : it was a projector that allowed a wider audience as kinetoscope. Nevertheless, it was not successful: the cinema far exceeded the market of motion picture projection 21 .
In France , this is the date of 28 December 1895 which is commonly considered the birth of cinema 22 , although the Lumiere brothers did not have claimed paternity. In contrast, the U.S. is in Edison is credited with the birth of cinema, highlighting the fact that he had not filed an international patent for his Kinetoscope, and that, as , the Lumiere brothers used it for their system. However, in 1895 , is the cinematography which is famous throughout the world: it was innovative for its time, and one unit acted as camera , printer and projector. To vary the projections, Auguste and Louis Lumiere sent operators around the world, as Gabriel Veyre , so they can film the other countries will be discussed later the first documentary films , but also the birth of an amateur film 23 . One of these operators, Alexander Promio , invented the first tracking shot from a boat 22 .
Following this success, cinemas open throughout Europe : the 25 January 1896 , the first opened in Lyon , then in London , at Bordeaux , in Brussels or in Berlin on 30 April 1896 19 . The radiation is rapidly becoming global. However, in America, Felix Mesguich , then operator for the Lumiere brothers, gets arrested while filming a battle of snowballs on the pretext that he had no authorization, and thus can no longer send his catch in Europe 24 .
The film quickly became a popular art and Charles Pathé cameramen decided to send the example of Auguste and Louis Lumiere filming scenes typical form of documentaries, enhancing the appearance ethnography of early cinema. For its part Georges Méliès became a pioneer in the field of special effects by performing, for example, A Trip to the Moon in 1902 . He then uses different techniques to illusionistic tricks and invents many films, sometimes inspired by the photograph 25 . It has often opposed the cinema of the Lumiere brothers to that of Melies. The Lumiere brothers therefore prefigure what will be the documentary, while Méliès gives rise to the fiction , largely inspired by the theater and its conventions 26 . It was in 1906 , in Australia , the first feature film is made: The Story of the Kelly Gang by Charles Tait .
Advent of talkies

Poster of 1902 showing a primitive systems of sound cinema developed by Gaumont
Tests of sound films were made ​​from 1889 by Thomas Edison , but none were positive image and sound were not synchronized 27 . On the other hand, Emile Reynaud was already using a system of synchronized sound effects during its projected “luminous pantomimes” in 1894 28 . In 1900 , a screening of a sound is made ​​public but added nothing conclusive enough for commercial exploitation . However, research has continued, especially by institutions Gaumont , from the 1900 World Fair 28 . On the other hand, many solutions were proposed to overcome the lack of sound: the films was very often accompanied by music played in the room, noisemakers placed behind the screen, or even actors playing dialogues or commenting on the scenes.
More than a birth of cinema sound, it is better to talk then of a transition and development that gradually led to the generalization of sound cinema as mechanical synchronization existed since the beginnings of cinema 28 . It was not until April 1923 , in New York , for a projection business is conducted with the use of a sound system on film 29 . This is known as “talkies” or of “talkies”, a popular American-sounding pejorative denoting, to this day, the earliest talkies, clumsy and crude 30 . The musical Singin ‘in the rain , carried out in 1952 by Stanley Donen and Gene Kelly , illustrates the sometimes laborious beginnings of sound film 31 . This is from 1932 it becomes a full-fledged technical in the world of cinema techniques to then save the picture and sound separately, and the sync thereafter. The film Don Juan , conducted in 1926 by Alan Crosland , with John Barrymore , is generally considered the first true feature film sound 32 , and The Jazz Singer , made ​​in 1927 also by Crosland, as the first talkie 33 , at any If the first public success of talkies.

Poster for the film The Jazz Singer ( 1927 ), considered the first talkie 33
In the early days of transition, the sound came from a succession of drives lasting several minutes 34 , which enclenchaient successively settled by the course of the film. This time was that of a technical revolution that changed the film industry. In 1927 , the audio is also recorded by film projection: we speak of its optics , a technique still used today.
During the year 1930 , talking pictures soon became the standard 35 . This technique was met with suspicion in the world, some directors fear that the dialogues do not distract the audience while focused on the aesthetics of the image 36 or the film does drift to a simple “filmed theater” instead continue to develop an original aesthetic. Moreover, the cameras of those days being very noisy, they had to enclose with their operators, in boxes soundproofed so that the microphones do not pick up this noise, which strongly reduced mobility of the camera. Similarly, the shooting became problematic outside the studios were so privileged. On the other hand, artists did not know to adapt to this upheaval, including players who were not used to playing with their voices, while some actors from the theater knew the contrary, a growing success in the cinema.
The film hits including noise caused the fall career of actors whose voice was not seen as pleasant, as John Gilbert , a partner of Greta Garbo , whose nasal voice stopped her career with the decline of silent films 37 , 38 . Conversely, other stars of the silent era were able to bounce back, as Ramon Novarro which continued to appear for a number of years with a beautiful tone of voice and his talent as a singer. Some directors refused, at least for a time, to the sound film, thereby stretching the period of cohabitation between the two forms of cinema. However, once accepted, the sound film caused a relatively sudden disappearance of the dumb.
During this period of infancy, many films were both silent and sound. In 1931 for example, René Clair turns Under the roofs of Paris and circumvents the problem by the sound capture: some scenes are silent because the actors are too far apart or located behind glass, others are sound but are held in darkness, allowing the sound to imagine the action 39 .
However, talking pictures put a big problem: the diversity of languages. The United States , it was feared also that the talkies restricts the export of films in non-English speakers. Several solutions are imagined, like turning the same movie with the same sets, but with actors differ according to language. We note some exceptions to this solution, including Laurel and Hardy , who turn themselves French and German versions, for example 40 . These solutions cause a further flight of the number of international co-productions.
Thus, the sound film was slow to take off, and it was only with the development of techniques for editing and recording that manages to find a place alongside the silent film . The latter eventually even disappear, even if obvious influences exerted on some directors like Jacques Tati and Aki Kaurismäki , who directed a silent film, Juha , in 1999 .
Moreover, this transition has also allowed the film to claim and assert definitively its status as art . It has made ​​possible the first forms of preservation and museumification of old films , caused by fear that the silent film disappears in a real and final 28 .
Color, a progressive disruption of the film
Development of color in film

Poor Pierrot ( 1891 ) of Emile Reynaud : the color right from the start of cinema

Plant coloring Pathé in 1906

A dream in color ( 1911 ), toured with the technique of Kinemacolor

Gentlemen Prefer Blondes ( 1953 ), filmed in Technicolor
The arrival of color in film had a different impact of the arrival of his 41 . Indeed, the sound caused the disappearance of the relatively sudden silent , while the color has influenced more mixed: the black and white still persist, along with the color. The first feature film shot in color date 1935 42 : Becky Sharp of Rouben Mamoulian . He was shot in Technicolor trichrome . Yet it was not until the late 1960s until the color is needed finally 43 , although some movies are still shot in black and white, by aesthetic choice, as Rusty James of Francis Ford Coppola or Raging Bull by Martin Scorsese 44 .
Like the sound, various solutions have been proposed to overcome the auto insurance quotes lack of color, even before the year 1900 . During the beginnings of cinema include Émile Reynaud , who, with his optical theater , offered to the public of cartoons in color from 1892 45 . After the onset of cinematographic techniques, Georges Méliès made ​​by hand coloring the film The Devil’s Manor ( 1897 ). Similarly, in 1906 , Pathé sent up a plant coloring for his films, but nothing too convincing yet 46 . The coloring process is however very common at the time.
Fourel Henry , head of coloring in Pathé, decided to mechanize the process and filed a patent on 22 October 1906 : with a system of cams , the machine reproduced the gestures of colorists. The system is improved, and a final patent was filed on 19 August 1908  , he characterized the machine through a sequence of continuous stencil and copy the coloring and the coloring of the copy via an endless belt in velvet 46 .
Another method is commercialized in 1911 : the Kinemacolor , developed in England by Charles Urban . The principle was the use of a camera whose shutter was replaced by an orange-red filter and a blue-green filter. The projector with the same shutter, it allowed to reproduce colors 46 . Many inventions followed, as chronochrome , the Technicolor or Eastmancolor .
The color film is built into a long series of investigations and color conventions 41 . Moreover, the Indian filmmaker, Satyajit Ray , declare, during the filming of Distant Thunder :
“With the passage of time, rules were founded: the films including songs and dances, historical or extraordinary, fantastic, or for children, light comedy or humorous, finally, the nature films were colors, and otherwise serious films, intense thrillers, police were ideal black and white. Rules of Hollywood 47 ! ”
So the director meant that certain types were more suitable than others in color. In this regard, the critic Anne Hollander says “the advent of color had actually resulted in a decline and not an improvement in the quality of realism 41 . ” However, the true boundaries of the color remained techniques 48 . It was not until the development of processes and lower costs of production , for the vast majority of filmmakers use this new format. In France for example, Jacques Tati turned Feast Day ( 1949 ) in both color and black and white, the color version but could not succeed at that time because of the inability of the company Thomson-Houston to take color copies , 49 . Only in the 1990s that the film was finally screened in color, thanks to the work of Sophie Tatischeff , the daughter of director 50 .
Technical and aesthetic innovations of the late xx th century
With the advent of digital , and faced with environmental changes as well as technical, economic and aesthetic industry, the company enters a deep movement of recomposition. Contemporary cinema is thus profoundly reshaped by the new modes of production, storage, and dissemination of new techniques. With the idea of profit , the big cinema , one that relates, became the logic of the market . The aesthetic issue is not as important as before 51 .
By the early 1970s , after the advent of color, the film breaks with the system aesthetics , then dominant. Now the realism became demonstrative: the film orients the will of the viewer, rather than encourage the belief 52 . The challenge of modern cinema itself has also changed: it no longer convincing, but present. The meaning of the film no longer has such importance, unlike the idea of history that is largely presented to the viewer 53 . In this modern cinema, the viewer interprets more, he meets a new thought, and must forget his own to see the movie. For example, Orson Welles , Roberto Rossellini , and more generally the New Wave does give more importance to the hero 54 . Similarly, through the modern cinema, a dissociation of the image and sound is put in. The Portuguese director, Manoel de Oliveira , and declare that the film returns to the theater , “theater and cinema is the same thing ” 55 . However, this resemblance is not ubiquitous: from the director, the film does borrows its principles, for example with the neutralization of the acting in Robert Bresson , it gives way to his text.
Modern cinema does is more speech, not monologue, as in the works of Sergei Eisenstein and Dziga Vertov .
Alongside this modern cinema during the 1960s 56 , another line appears, the ” underground cinema “, which is largely tied to social movements 57 . It differs from other genera by its style, its genre and its financing. It is the critic Manny Farber who will employ the first in 1957 , in an essay he had written. He was referring to the work of filmmakers who “played a role of anti-art in Hollywood, “adding that” [filmmakers] were gangsters, cowboys, soldiers or, as Raoul Walsh , Howard Hawks and William A. Wellman 58 “. The underground cinema stands out from the professional industry by using the 16mm format . From hcg diet 1965 , the super 8 , also cheaper and lighter, emerges and triggers the rise of amateur film , with the realization of series Z for example. Thus, young designers got their start in the film to achieve a kind of “diaries filmed.” Of these, there are Jonas Mekas , Lionel Soukaz , Sophie Calle and Dominique Cabrera . With the arrival of these new technologies, innovation of technology has created a lighter material that gave birth to experimental cinema , as well as computer graphics in the 1990s 59 . The digital has also appeared, making easier the postproduction and editing .
More recently, the embossed film appeared with the stereoscopic projection . Yet early in 1936 , the process of anaglyph , which is an image printed to be seen in relief , using two different color filters, is used by the Lumiere brothers . But then there is very marginal, little used, and does not meet the expected success, partly because he wanted to charge 60 . From the xix th century , the process resurfaced with the use of still images initially, then moving from the beginning of xx th century , in parallel with the process of the IMAX 60 . The United States , the process is revolutionizing the cinema, and filmmakers with known turn as John Wayne , Jerry Lewis or Rita Hayworth 61 . In the rest of the world, some cinemas have yet adopted this method of projection 62 . This recent rise of cinema in relief was initiated by the film industry to face competition from television 60 and piracy.
Cinema, an art

The film is often regarded today as an entertainment 63 . Yet it still remains an art in itself 64 . As the philosopher Alain Badiou :
“The film comes after the other arts, not just in the technical sense or chronological, but because it maintains ongoing relationships, and sometimes mimetic, with the arts appeared before him: theater, music, literature, painting, sculpture … It mimics, turns, moves, absorbs, assimilates all previous artistic activities. Compound, composite, impure, film or integrates and delivers outstanding items that do not own it. It is this capacity for synthesis which makes it a dominant art, an art of mass. Ride of the Valkyries is forever associated with Apocalypse Now 65 . ”
The break is now consumed between Hollywood blockbusters and art films .
Often, the film is a personal version of its principal creator, director 66 . Born in the middle of the industrial revolution , the film was strongly influenced by a profit motive. He became a “folk art” in wanting always to reach as many people, sometimes to the detriment of the creative side. In The Rise of insignificance , of Cornelius Castoriadis , the author says:
“Contemporary culture becomes, increasingly, a mixture of imposture modernist and muséisme . Long ago as the Modernism has become an old hat, cultivated for itself, and often based on mere copycats who are admitted through the neo-illiteracy of the public [...] The past culture is no longer living in a tradition, but an object of knowledge muséique and worldly curiosities and tourist-regulated modes 67 . ”
Movements and schools
A movement in film can be understood as a way to feel the work. Heinrich Wölfflin originally called the “sense of dislocation decorative 68 ” . Gilles Deleuze remarked in his book The Image movement , the movement went hand in hand electronic cigarettes with film movements in painting 69 . Classical cinema was to make clear the relationship between action and reaction, but new movements were born.

Displays expressionist film The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari
In the early 1920s , the expressionism in painting, distorted lines and colors to affirm a feeling 70 . In film, he will speak mainly typed by a set of players and the opposition of the shadow and the light 71 . The expressionism and confronts good and evil, as in The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari , from Robert Wiene , one of the first Expressionist films 72 . This movement has developed in Germany , a country that is gradually recovering from the war, but failed to compete with the Hollywood 73 . It was then that the directors of the German studio Universum Film AG developed a method to compensate for this, through the symbolism and staging. The abstract side of the decorations came therefore, first, the lack of means 73 . The main themes of this movement was madness, betrayal and other spiritual matters, and differentiating fiction-adventure style of American cinema 74 . However, gradually disappeared Expressionism 74 , but was used in detective films of the 1940s and influenced the film noir and horror films 71 .
Then comes the lyrical abstraction , which, unlike expressionism, mixed white and light 75 . There is no conflict, but the proposal of an alternative 76 . This alternative presents itself differently among filmmakers, it is aesthetic and passionate in Josef von Sternberg and Douglas Sirk , ethics in Carl Theodor Dreyer and Philippe Garrel , religious in Robert Bresson , or a mixture of all these forms as in the work of Ingmar Bergman 77 . In the lyrical abstraction, the world unfolds often from a face 77 . There then follows a set of light highlighting the features, or driving in a personal universe. In Shanghai Gesture , Sternberg said, “anything can happen at any time. Everything is possible. The affect is made ​​of two elements: the farm qualification of white space but also the intense potency of what is going to spend 78 “.
In the 1950s , modern cinema unchained the image of the action. He was born of disarticulation of things and bodies after the war 79 . He opposes the previously established traditions. Modern cinema prefers cinematic vision: the image is no longer forced to find meaning and purpose, it is free. In Hour of the Wolf , of Ingmar Bergman , Johan Borg, played by Max von Sydow , said: “Now the mirror is broken, it is time that the pieces begin to think 80 . ” Modern cinema breaks the classical representation of space, a new idea of form is born.
At the same time, 1943 to 1955 , the neorealism takes shape in Italy 81 . It looks like the newspaper in the state, he sees himself as a medium between scenario and reality . The films of this movement are often documentaries 82 . These are people on the street who are filmed, most actors 82 . This movement was born as the conclusion of World War II and lack of funding means 83 . Here, the director does his attention on the person, but on the whole: the individual can not exist without its environment 82 . Moreover, rather than to show something, we prefer the narration. According to André Bazin , the neorealism is like a form of liberation, that the Italian people after the fascist period 84 . On the other hand, Deleuze sees neorealism as a demarcation of the movement-image and image-time.

A man and a woman of Claude Lelouch
Also in the year 1950 , then appeared the New Wave , a term first statement in The Express by Francoise Giroud 85 . This movement is distinguished from earlier vitality that sparked a revival of French Cinema 86 . New Wave is seeking to enter the lyricism in everyday life and refuses the beauty of the image 87 . With the New Wave, new technologies allow new ways to produce and shoot a film: the arrival of the camera Flash 16 using the 16 mm format , lightweight and quiet, allows shooting in the real outdoors nearest 88 . The break between film shot in studio and film shot outdoors is particularly highlighted in Day for Night by Francois Truffaut , filmed in 1973 . The movement of the New Wave also triggers the transgression of certain conventions such as continuity, such as Breathless by Jean-Luc Godard , or the camera view , so long forbidden. To this end, the filmmakers sought to highlight the reality that memories arise broken, never neat and orderly fashion.
Then a new movement appeared: the resistance of the body. What changes in comparison hot tub covers with the previous movements, it is the shooting of the body, which is filmed before being put into action, and as a body which resists 89 . The body here is no longer a barrier that separated the previously thought of herself, on the contrary, this is what she is going to reach life 90 . In some ways, the body does not think it forces to think and react to life. Gilles Deleuze declares:
“We do not even know what a body can do: in his sleep, in his drunkenness, in its efforts and resistances. The body is never in the present, it contains the before and after, fatigue, waiting. Fatigue, waiting, even despair are the attitudes of the body 89 . ”
The resistance of the body is remarkable in the work of John Cassavetes where the camera is always moving parallel to the actors’ gestures. Through the image, the viewer looks for faces , bodies in long sequences. Similarly, the rate is not equal to the eyesight of the viewer. He answers, as in the informal art , the constitution of a touch, the sight of more than 89 . In the cinema of Maurice Pialat , who is filming in a man alive and tries to show largely devoid of any aesthetic , to exhibit the intimate truth of his character, he will say “cinema is the truth when the is turned ” 91 . By cons, the dialog remains omnipresent in the resistance of the body, always important voice in the film 89 . However, it does not explain the feelings of the characters, it advances the action, but no character development in this action 90 . In the early 1980′s , with Maria Koleva has introduced the concept of film-book.
In the year 1990 , the Danish director Lars von Trier and Thomas Vinterberg launch Dogme95 in response to blockbusters and the misuse of special effects resulting, they say, to movies formatted and impersonal 92 . Through a clear , they define constraints for making movies as part of this radical movement.
Music and Cinema
Main article: Music of the film .

Bollywood : the movies are often accompanied by dances and songs
Since the arrival of his film, the development of dialogue and soundtrack , the music quickly became an essential element of the film. Music helps to develop the atmosphere, and make emphatic feelings of the characters.
While the film was born, was a silent film. To overcome the lack of sound, a musician, usually a pianist , accompanied the projection. This reinforced the music rhythm and emotion, and producers quickly realized the. From 1909 , classical music are included in movies. We must wait some time before the composers wrote specifically for film. However, at the beginning, the music is not yet well developed, and remains one of the accompanying speech, Igor Stravinsky will consider as the “wallpaper” 93 .
The music will soon lose its role as an illustration to become useful to the story, and marketing will take off again, allowing moviegoers to remember the mood of the film. However, some movements, such as dogme95 , seeking to demonstrate the simplicity, prohibit the use of music as it is not part of the stage 94 .
The ” Bollywood “, and more generally the Indian cinema , often has several musical stages and dance 95 . The music is mostly pre-recorded and mimed by the actors , using the method of backing 96 . They are so professional singers who make up the dubbing voices. However, more recently, the actors sing themselves in their films like Aamir Khan in Ghulam ( 1998 ) or Hrithik Roshan in Guzaarish ( 2010 ). Music plays a very important place here, outside of the image, it’s close, the full.
Film Criticism
A critic is someone who gives his opinion on a movie in a media such as television , the radio or the press 97 . When they have influence, critics can determine the indoor attendance of the film 98 . Some have also given their names to a reward, as Louis Delluc . There are also associations critical for delivery of prizes.

Former seat of Figaro , one of the first magazines to devote the space to criticism
The job of criticism has sometimes been controversial for some, the critic could see free movies before they leave and get paid to write an article 99 . However, when going to a movie, he must speak his opinion, or admit the success of a film to its car loans audience, even if it does not like: each film has its audience 99 . Moreover, the critic must be able to bring a movie to another, which would have influenced first by staging or shooting 99 .
The criticism began in December 1895 when the cinema was born, prompting the invention of numerous articles in the press 100 . However, until the early xx th century , the critique is only about the technical journals in the photograph because the film was not then considered a major art form and as influential as the theater for example 100 . It was in 1912 , in Le Figaro , a survey is conducted on the growing competition exerted by the film in the theater 100 . Therefore, in the critics, are included anecdotes about production but still advertising: if you write a film is to facilitate its entry into room 100 .
In 1915 , Louis Delluc looks Forfaiture of Cecil B. DeMille and he was struck by the quality of the image 100 . He decides to give up everything to devote himself to what he considers an art: he wrote his first article in the journal Film on 25 June 1917 . Then he persuaded the editor of Paris-Midi to give the film its rightful place, saying: “We are witnessing the birth of an extraordinary art 100 . ” Subsequently the major French newspapers are developing sections entirely devoted to cinema, as Le Petit Journal in fall 1921 , and where there is more publicity: criticism is no longer selling the film, but it analyzes 100 .

First page of the Diary which devotes a section to the cinema, free advertising
After the First World War , the film takes considerable space, above the theater. All dailies now have a section for criticism and journals are created, such as Cinémagazine or Cinemonde 101 . This is Andre Bazin that must be prioritization of critical business 101 . In December 1943 , it attacks the limited nature of chronic and lack of culture of the authors. In 1951 , are based Les Cahiers du cinema by Joseph-Marie Lo Duca and Jacques-Doniol Valcroze , soon joined by Andre Bazin 102 . Through their criticisms, they denounce the lack of requirement for other magazines, who tolerate all films, whether or mediocre quality. The influence of the magazine is therefore a major in France 101 .
Given the growing success and influence of the Journal , other journals are born as Positive at Lyon in 1952 from the pen of Bernard Chardère 103 . Positive , to differentiate themselves from other critics, does not address only film reviews but also to the history of film 104 . Both magazines will engage a tug of war, the filmmakers appreciated by one to be impaired by the other. And if they come to like the same director, they will fight to determine which was admired in the first 104 . It was during this period that will be created the politique des auteurs .
In 1962 , with the birth of the International Critics Week at Cannes , the film press is becoming increasingly popular and gives a renewal to cinephilia 104 . It intervenes in the daily fight against censorship French 104 , 105 .
In 1980 , with the emergence of television and the collapse of film clubs , film criticism and back several magazines no longer afford to maintain 104 . Today, critics, whether professional or amateur, can publish their review or critique on the Web , or play money. Although their work has lost much of importance in the press, critics retain some influence and can even help make or break the reputation of a film 104 .
Meanwhile, critics associations have organized to recognize each year the films they see as major, or give critics’ award at festivals. We find among them including the NYFCC Award , the Critics Circle Awards London Film of the price or FIPRESCI and the National Society of Film Critics .
Film theory

The work of linguist Ferdinand de Saussure established the beginnings of the structural analysis of narrative.
The film theorists have sought to develop concepts and to study film as an art 106 . Resulting from modern technology while being one of the symptoms and causes of modernity, its principles, as the technique, the assembly , or the shooting , have revolutionized the modes of representation in the figurative arts and literature 107 . To train and understand as art, cinema has needed theories.
In Matter and Memory , in 1896 , the French philosopher Henri Bergson anticipates the development of the theory at a time when the cinema was just seen as visionary 107 . It also expresses the need to reflect on the idea of movement, and therefore invented the term “movement-image” and “time-image” 107 . However in 1907 , in his essay The Illusion film , shot in Creative Evolution , he rejects the cinema as an example of what he has in mind. However, much later, in Cinema I and Cinema II , the philosopher Gilles Deleuze makes Matter and Memory as the basis of his own philosophy of film and review the concepts of Bergson by attaching them to the semiotics of Charles Peirce .
It was in 1911 in The Birth of the Sixth Art that Ricciotto Canudo sketch the first theories 108 , 109 , while standing in the era of silence and focusing mainly on defining critical elements 110 . Work and innovations of directors drainèrent more thought. Louis Delluc , with the idea of photogenic , Germaine Dulac and Jean Epstein , who see the film both a means of meeting and exceeding the body and mind, are the main actors of French avant-garde, followed closely by German theories which, influenced by expressionism , are turning more to the picture. Note the parallel Gestalt , which arises between the xix th century and the xx th century under the aegis of Ernst Mach 111 .
The Soviet side, theorists-filmmakers take the mount for the essence of the film 107 . The favorite theme of Sergei Eisenstein will be the creation in all its aspects, or anything that allows us to envisage the creation of a “language” of image-concept and a general theory of montage, revealing both the identical laws of reality and thought. For its part Dziga Vertov will mouthpiece of novelty and futurism . His theory, corresponding to the assembly of fragments to small units of meaning, wants the destruction of the whole tradition and replace it with a “factory of the facts,” radical conception of cinema, if any. Editing “honest narrative” American set theory by Pudovkin , however, prevail in world cinema.
Formalist film theory, led by Rudolf Arnheim , Béla Balázs , and Siegfried Kracauer , emphasized that the film differs from reality, and that this is a real art 112 . Lev Bankruptcy Kuleshov and Paul Rotha , also highlighted the difference between cinema and reality and support the idea that cinema should be seen as an art form in its own right 110 .
After the Second World War , the film critic and French theorist André Bazin reacted against this approach to filmmaking, explaining that the essence of cinema is its ability to mechanically reproduce reality not in its difference from to reality. Bazin is turning towards a more ontological film and shapes and a realistic film theory. Against Bazin, Jean Mitry developed the first theory of the sign and significance to the movies, without wanting to assimilate, even by analogy, the visual image and filmic structures with verbal language, as will the temptation of semiotics 107 when that , in the year 1960 and 1970 , film theory invest academia, important concepts from established disciplines such as psychoanalysis , the gender studies , the anthropology , the theory of literature , the semiotics and linguistics . The semiotics of the cinema will take various forms: psychoanalysis, Russian formalism , deconstructive philosophy , narratology , history , etc.. Its importance lies in the “textual analysis”, research into the details of the operating structures of the films 107 .
From the year 1960 , a cleavage occurs between theory and practice of cinema. This relative autonomy desired remain: when, with his “large syntagmatic narrative of the film” , Christian Metz proposes, 1966 , to formalize the implicit codes for the operation of cinema, Jean-Luc Godard deconstructs such codes within his works. The year 1980 will end an era rich in theories.

Nanni Moretti , director strongly influenced by the cinema mental
During the 1990s , the revolution of digital technology in the image had different impacts in terms of film theory. From a psychoanalytic point of view, after the notion of real- Jacques Lacan , Slavoj Žižek offered new aspects of the look extensively used in denver martial arts the analysis of contemporary cinema 113 . There was also a reassessment of historical projection modes, practices and attitudes of viewers of early cinema, by Tom Gunning , Miriam Hansen, Maria Koleva and Yuri Tsivian .
In modern cinema, the body is filmed extensively before being put into action, filmed as a body which resists. For some filmmakers , the brain is staged 114 . Through this movement, known as mental film, there is a violent extreme, still controlled by the brain 115 . For example, the early films of Benoît Jacquot are strongly impregnated with this movement: the characters are folded on themselves, without clarification of their Psychology 116 . Jacquot declared in 1990 , about The Disenchanted , “I make films to be close to those who make films: actors. Sometimes the young directors want actors to erect a sign of their world. I’m not trying to show my own world. I am looking for much more work to the world of film. It’s bullshit to say that the actor enters the skin of his character. These are the characters who have the skin of the player 115 . ” Several other filmmakers, as André Téchiné , Alain Resnais , Nanni Moretti , Takeshi Kitano , or Tim Burton film were influenced by the mental 116 .
Cinephilia

Crowd of moviegoers at the Berlinale in 2007
The cinephile is a term whose meaning common is the “love of cinema.” Nowadays, the expression of this passion for cinema can be multiple, but the term was originally used to describe a cultural movement and French intellectual who has developed between the 1940s and the late 1960s 117 . It is commonly said that a person is when cinephile devoted much of his spare time watching films and / or the study of film 118 . In addition, a film buff may also collect posters of movies or various derivatives . Because of its potentially addictive, cinephilia is compared by André Habib a real “disease, fiercely contagious, which can not get rid rarely 119 . ”
The evolution of cinephilia is very influenced by that film. There was a time when, once its finished theatrical distribution, film disappeared 120 . Miss it when it came out was tantamount to not being able to see, at least to conduct a diligent search in a film library 121 . To be a film buff, he had to travel, and follow closely the evolution of styles. Today, miss a film during its theatrical release is no longer a problem, most films being subsequently broadcast on television or DVD . However, a significant part of filmmaking called “rare” remains difficult to access, and film fans can wait several years while an edition (or reprint) on DVD or broadcast during a festival . Thus says Jean Tulard , French historian and university:
“In the old film buffs, the film was a rarity, since a film, once he was out in the commercial sector, disappeared. There was not, as now, 40 television movies that pass. There were no videocassette or DVD. Missed a movie when it was released or unreleased film was difficult to see. That meant, for movie lovers, the effort to travel to see him in a foreign film library, and this explains why the older generation of moviegoers were children of the Cinematheque, that is- say the children of Henri Langlois , who was, precisely, many of these films missed 120 . ”

The film Comœdia , supported by several moviegoers Lyon
On the other hand, until one time it was possible for a film buff to have seen much of the world film heritage. This was the case with many French moviegoers between the years 1940 and 1960 . Today, given the almost exponential growth 122 production of films since the birth of cinema, and what many dedicating their lives, moviegoers can no longer see a tiny part. For contemporary moviegoers, so the choice is made ​​between a qualitative approach (see only the films recognized or rewarded, or along more personal) or a quantitative approach – this is called cinéphagie .
Cinephilia also has other influences: from the birth of cinema, film societies have developed to gather theater enthusiasts . It usually study the history and techniques of cinema, following a screening of a film 123 . Different members of a film club have the same interests and schedule their own broadcasts and discussions, debates or 124 . Over time, the concept has evolved and is increasingly affiliated with a varied socio-cultural activity. It is well adapted in educational programs, such as “movie-snacks 125 “, as part of a cultural objective as a” drive-philo “linking cinema and philosophy 126 , or through profit organization profit, by organizing themed evenings such as “drive-party 127 , 128 . ”
The arrival of new media in the second half of the xx th century has upset the habits of moviegoers. The television , car insurance comparison the VCR , the DVD and the Internet have popularized a cinephile seen as elitist at the height of attendance film clubs (the year 1940 to 1960 ). But this popularity has not been passed on cinema attendance , because cinephilia manifested less and less room . Attendance has indeed been declining since the post-war 129 , as shown in the detailed table on attendance at cinemas in major countries where cinema plays a major role, since 1950 :
Average number of films seen in room per capita per year

Upon arrival, the film reveals its first producing its commercial potential. Operated at fairs, on the move, he is quickly “pull” highly appreciated. And Charles Pathé , who makes short films for this type of projection , feels the need to make several copies of each of his short films and at the inadequacy of the growing number of copies, he has the idea of renting movies rather than selling 131 . With mass production comes industrialization.
Economics of cinema
The economy and cinema have always been very close: the economics explains the history or even the aesthetics of the image 132 , 133 .
The film industry requires funding. However, over time, ways of producing and distributing a film evolved. For example, during the 2000s , the costs of publishing a French film is an average of € 652 000 134 , 135 . Nearly 44.7% of this value are used in the purchase of advertising space, that is to say € 207 500 on average. Then come lab costs that mobilize to 31.8% of the budget, and design of advertising material which costs on average € 51 000 . Nevertheless, these values ​​vary with the number of copies of the film 134 .
Film Finance

A cinema ticket
The stakes financial round of a film are usually considerable. This is due to the presence of a large number of stakeholders in the process of creating a movie , and the technical means employed, often important. An economic activity is organized from the very beginning of cinema to ensure both the collection of funds for the production and also the return on investments 136 . The results at the box office are therefore crucial that all revenues from other media ( television , video …) are correlated to success in theaters (the selling price for TV channels is the number of spectators) 137 .
Chains and television were increasingly involved in film financing and industry has also provided assistance in using the big screen as a means of developing their products (this is called product placement ) 138 . The appearance of materials used in homes (initially the videotape and then DVD , and more recently Blu-ray ) is from the year 1980 a new revenue stream more important 139 . Meanwhile, the marketing of products ( toys for children, video games or the disc of the soundtrack of the film) and joint campaigns (one brand is partnering with film to benefit from its image) complete the picture of revenue 140 .
To help finance a feature film in France , and in order to encourage producers beginners, the National Film Centre and the moving image automatically delivers their financial support 141 . In the same vein, the SOFICA , companies private equity , fund nearly 5.5% of DUI Attorney films 142 in exchange for a percentage of the receipts but without any right on the negative 143 . Since their inception in 1985 , they invested nearly € 380 million in more than seven hundred films 143 . If currently farmers are the first schedulers of a film, television tends to catch up. For example TF1 has invested nearly $ 234.6 million francs in nineteen films in 2000 144 .
However, there remains other countries, where film and television are not the same type of relationship, and subsequent funding. The United States , television does not fund or little productions, unlike large majors . Similarly, the German cinema is itself funded by grants (in 1977 , they represented nearly 80% of film financing) 145 . In South Korea , the films are financed by quotas in year 1960 , to try to resurface before the American cinema , and in 1990 , it was through the intervention of industrial trusts (“chaebols”) that more than 300 film will be produced annually 146 , 147 .

Elephants Dream , distributed free on the film web 148
In addition, during the development , the seller, or distributor, the film is now playing a crucial role in developing the screenplay and script 149 . Indeed, in deciding to distribute the film, the seller is looking for a story often public, which will give a box-office benefits. In this sense, the auteur cinema is no longer favored in the distribution .
However, the development of shared computer files peer to peer , which allows the exchange of individuals between movies on the Internet , raised concern among film professionals a crisis such as that through which the music industry 150 . Yet it is worth noting, in France , a record attendance of rooms , with 20.7 million viewers during the month of July 2009: it was thirty years so many people had not moved to see a film 151 , 152 . This influx can be explained by the release of big-budget films such as Ice Age 3 , Harry Potter 6 , Up there or Public Enemies . Moreover, the fight against piracy has continued to increase: a copy of Bronzés 3 was published on the internet by employees of TF1 who were sentenced by the court of Nanterre 153 , 154 ; the side of his Warner Bros. . decided to ban front-first in Canada 155 . In addition, bills are being discussed to try to protect the film industry.
Nevertheless, some artists have chosen to voluntarily distribute their films on the Internet. Are particularly striking Elephants Dream or The Bal des Innocents in Paris Joseph, both available under the license Creative Commons 156 , 157 . Similarly, the Warner Bros. reformed its distribution videos since early 2009 . It was during the video release of The Dark Knight: The Dark Knight as the production company decided to include a free and legal download on the internet, the purchaser of a DVD 158 . Meanwhile, Warner has decided that the output video on demand would occur simultaneously with the usual output format DVD / Blu-ray . It is in this initiative that Warner sees a fight against piracy 159 .
Film and Television

Seat of a television studio Japanese .
The links between cinema and television have been highlighted by Laurent Creton in cinema and silver 160 . The film maintains a complicated relationship with the television 161 , the latter is indeed the first competitor of the film 162 , 144 . The adoption of color television has had a direct impact on cinema attendance in France , in 1960 163 .
However it is also the first customer of cinema 164 . The TV stations devote a significant portion of their schedules to movies or documentaries because these programs guarantee their rates excellent hearing 165 . In consideration of the agreements require the channels sums of investment in the film industry. They thus become co-producers and play an important part of film financing the acquisition of broadcasting rights for the film 166 . Today it has become essential to obtain a film of a television broadcast to mount a project 167 .
For producers the importance of this investment is both a reassuring, because it is a reduction or risk-sharing financial , and loss of freedom 167 . Often the producer is indeed required to select projects that are likely to be publishable on a television. Although the partial control of producers by television channels induces a threat to the diversity and originality of the films produced 168 .

Headquarters of France Televisions
The television broadcast films wishing reflecting a diversity of cultures can not limit their relations with the cinema to domestic producers . Two scenarios then coexist. Is all right for the country approached the film were purchased by a distributor Nationally, the TV station negotiates with the dealer . Either the TV rights of the film is held by a prospective international sales, leaving it to the TV channel to negotiate with the seller and International conduct itself in dubbing or subtitling of the film.
The reduction of working time and increasing the number of programming, including a significant number of films, television helped to gain a place in families 161 . For France , the appearance of Canal + in 1984 and other channels has increased significantly the number of films scheduled 169 . Between 1975 and 1984 , the three public channels, we could see five hundred films programmed per year against 1500 average from 1995 (with a / 3 on Canal +) and not counting reruns 170 .
In France , the total annual screenings has increased more than tenfold in thirty years 170 . For viewing, you will hear an entry in a movie theater , or 100 day loans a spectator sitting in front of a screen ( television , computer ) at home. During the same period, the proportions making up this total were significantly altered in favor of home viewings. Thus, today, only 2% of screenings take place in a movie theater 170 . Note also that between 1980 and 2002 household spending devoted to audiovisual expenses are among those experiencing the largest increase. But, again, the share of the budget devoted to Household audiovisual cinema declined in favor of spending audiovisual alternatives. This share has increased from 50% in 1980 to 14% in 2002 170 .
Market developments

Set of the film War of the Worlds by Steven Spielberg ,
55 th highest score worldwide box office 171
At the head of the largest importers of feature films, we find the United States and France 172 . Indeed, the volume of trade between Europe and North America is important: in 1997 , for example, 53 million North Americans have seen European films in best credit cards room while 388 million Europeans have seen movies U.S.. Nevertheless, the trade balance is favorable to the United States, totaling an annual income of $ 5.6 billion 172 . Next is Canada whose rooms have screened nearly 220 foreign films 173 . Therefore, it is possible to effect a reconciliation between producing and exporting countries, in fact, countries that export the most are often those that produce the most 172 . The India appears first with export production by nearly 60% to the markets of Africa 172 .
Despite the large diversity of world film production, U.S. productions monopolize the largest market share, even with near-monopoly situations in countries such as Chile and Costa Rica where 95% of films imported from the United States , or to Cyprus where the figure is 97%. Conversely, American cinema was only 7% of the market in Iran which produces itself about 62 movies a year, and which rooms have a film Life Insurance Quotes program to varied sources 172 .
Similarly, the African continent appears to be the largest importer of American films where free iPhone 4 its market share reached 70% against 15% for European films 172 . However, francophone African countries spent an equal to American and European located around 40%, Morocco being the exception with 46% of American films, 20% of Indian movies and only 8.5% of French films 172 .
Other theaters, such as Hong Kong or Taiwan , whose products are considered medium, however, recorded a sales volume for export important, particularly to the African and the South America where the penetration of Japanese cinema is also notable 172 . However, these figures underlie a number of invisible phenomena such as cultural diversity causing a diversity of demand, power companies distributing , or even more anecdotal evidence that such censorship implemented by some governments hampers production in some countries 172 .

Satyajit Ray .
Meanwhile, other cinemas have taken advantage of market developments, and have succeeded in their place, with an import more and more important, it is for example the case of Bollywood , and more generally of Indian cinema . In India, production is generally inexpensive, the most expensive totaled $ 10,000,000 174 , 175 . Until the late 1980s , the films were not known outside of India itself, with some exceptions such as Morocco 176 , because of American and European distributions whose influence was global 177 , or by the difference in culture 178 . However, with improved technology related to special effects , the Bollywood films have managed to establish themselves, and develop a wider market, as Krrish shot in 2006 or 2050 Love Story ( 2007 ) The shooting has generated participation more than five international studios special effects 179 . Thus, Indian cinema has grown and internationalized.
However, with market developments, in some countries, we talk about the decline of the national film industry. This is the case for example in Italy . In parallel to the fall in attendance , Italy, the theaters do not project that 19% of Italian films, with a production of around 138 films a year 180 . The European Union has initiated co-productions between his country and 41 Italian films, in 2004, are co-productions. However, this was not enough to re-raise the value of Italian cinema 180 . According to Marin Karmitz , it is by the influence of television private that this decline is due, destructive of creativity: he then speak of a Trojan Horse in Europe for American cinema 180 . Indeed, given the decline of national cinema, TV stations broadcast a majority of American films.
The following table lists the countries producing the most films based on the annual average of films produced between 1988 and 1999 181 . It should be noted that many of these countries export a fraction of their productions, sometimes ahead of the biggest exporters.

Film industry
From an original idea, of turning to the distribution , implies a number of film technicians, artists and broadcasters. It can range from several weeks to several months. Typically, the producer who owns the rights to the film 182 .
The realization of a film can be divided into five steps 183 .
First, there is the development of a script designed by a writer usually 184 .
Then, the pre is set up to prepare for the shoot with the design of a production file 185 .
Then comes the production itself, during which the director turns his film alongside technicians and artists varied and numerous, such as actors , the chief operator or his assistants .
Finally, the post allows the editing of the film and the addition of the soundtrack as well as special effects and photochemical laboratory work and / or digital. The end of the post will result in the delivery of the film in its various formats farms (photochemical film, digital files for digital cinema and PAD (ready to play) for television and other broadcasting methods. This is the end of this step that stops the producer’s role.
The process ends with the distribution when the film benefits from advertising and promoting its distribution of copies, a situation called the operation .
Production

The Paramount Pictures production company, American
Phase production of a film encompasses the entire production of film , creating a project to its distribution 186 . Nevertheless, the role of producer has not always been the same over time 186 and it is not always the cause of a film 187 .
The production company pays the costs incurred by shooting 188 . She also chooses the company distributing the film that publicitera at its output 189 . It sometimes happens that the producer creates his own distribution company 190 . It also helps in the realization of the film, writing the scenario , the choice of actors and locations and it is the main interlocutor of the team in case of conflict 188 . The producer has a role not only artistic but also philanthropy . The producer is the only responsible to the various project schedulers 189 . Moreover, its function is defined as: “The producer of the audiovisual work is the natural or legal person who takes the initiative and responsibility for carrying out the work [...] takes personal or jointly sharing the initiative and responsibility for financial, technical and artistic achievement of the work and guarantees performance on 191 . ”
Nevertheless, it persists, most of the time difference between the production of a film to the United States and France , for example. Indeed, in America , the producer often works for a major motion picture , a large company which relies on banks or firms to finance the film 192 , while in Europe , the producer usually works for a small company and has the support of various government agencies such as the CNC in France, for its grant 193 .

A film
The production begins with the development , that is to say by writing a script 194 . Subsequently, a séquencier is designed which allows to decompose the story into scenes. Therefore, a dealer is chosen by the producer: it will evaluate the potential success of the film, considering the kind of film, the audience or the history of the success of similar films. A director is then selected 195 .
Then comes the pre-production , where the film is imagined and the film also prepared 196 . Sometimes an illustrator draw a storyboard to describe the set of plans that will turn and help the team during the preparation of the tray 197 . The budget is set by the production company. The executive producer hires the crew required: it generally includes the director, his assistant , a director of casting , a stage manager , the production manager and director of photography , the artistic director , the chief operator of the The boom operator , the editor and composer . Filming is well prepared we enter the phase of production itself, the one where the director stages the players: shooting can finally start 198 .
The lights are set up and made ​​up and costumed actors. They then repeat their lines under the leadership of director , which indicates their movements to be done, or what is wrong with their intonation. Finally, the shooting may begin 199 . Each scene is shot in several plans and each shot is identified thanks to clap , which will allow the editor to locate tips from those who will not be used 200 . It’s the director to decide whether the outlet is good, or, conversely, whether to do it again. For security, good catches are doubled.

Herbert Brenon and Alla Nazimova on the set of War Brides
For productions using the photographic paintball film traditional negatives of the day are sent to the laboratory for Bins a developing nightlife. They are the ” rushes ” (first positive) and are viewed by the director, the technical team, and sometimes the players 201 . For digital techniques, the catch is orchestrated and downloaded into a computer as the “catch of the day.”
Thus, at the end of filming, the film between phase of post production , where it is mounted with possible special effects and soundtrack 202 . With the advent of video, the process of editing has changed. The principle of the assembly is to assemble the shots and sequences. The next step is to create some fluidity in the sequence of images. Then the director and the producer give their opinion. The assembly is thus “closed”. In audio mixing , sound and image are synchronized.
Then the final assembly becomes the “working copy”, and is illuminated from a copy, or calibrated, the negative complied with this copy. It is from this drawing that the copies intended for cinemas are drawn. So the film is in the process of distribution , that is to say that a company hired, or created by the production company will design a poster of the film, organize meetings confined to the press and create a world of advertising around the film.
Distribution

Poster for the film Roman de gare of Claude Lelouch
A distribution company is an independent company, subsidiary, or rarely an individual structure, which acts as an agent with a final production company to ensure the screening room 203 . In the film world, the term “distributor” refers to the marketing and distribution of films in the world, both at the theater in a private radiation 204 .
At first, it’s the distributor to ensure the theatrical release. It is for him to schedule broadcasts: for this, it organizes screenings to operators or creates an attractive advertisement for the film 203 . Its purpose is to give the operator the idea of profit he can generate by projecting the film. Then the distributor must sign a contract stipulating the percentage that the operator will have to transfer to his company and the amount collected after the film screened 205 . It transmits a portion of revenues to the production company . However, generally, there are global contracts between distributors and exhibitors who set the percentage of the ticket they share. In the 1920s , movies were rented “fixed price per meter” 206 and this location could last a day or two.
It is also the distributor to ensure that the number of copies of the film will be enough to provide all the theaters and monitors their delivery. It controls the same time if the movie is in cinema stipulated on the contract and if the minimum number of seats is correct 205 . When the film is not screened, the distributor must ensure that the coils to be returned. In practice, the distributor also ensures the sale of posters , the soundtracks and products and organizes interviews for the press 205 . Furthermore, this advertising will help the operator to sell tickets. It can also set up previews to encourage people to come, with the presence of the main artists on the film .
If the partnership distribution deals with a foreign denver car accident lawyer language film, this will be his role to subtitle the film, or to set up the dubbing . It is also his role as cut scenes, if any, censored by the government.
Here is a graph showing the evolution of film distribution in France (films distributed per year) 207 :

Film festivals

The Cannes Film Festival , film festival, the most publicized in the world 208
A film festival is a festival of films. This event consists of the projection of a set of short or feature films in a given place and for a limited time. These projections are generally open to the public but sometimes its being restricted to critics , journalists or professional 209 .
The film festival is the first meeting between a work, its creators and its audience, if it takes place before the national release of the film 210 . Sometimes this will be the only, if the meeting fails. It is therefore a key moment in the life of a film. This exposure time can be violent. For the director and producer , audience reaction – even warned – the presentation of the film can be a source of deep questioning or national consecration, and sometimes international, as the Golden Lion at the Venice Film diabetic foot ulcer Festival Venice , the Golden Bear for best film at the Berlinale , the Palme d’Or at Cannes Film Festival or the Grand Jury Prize at The Interval 211 .
The role of film festivals is twofold. They allow both to finding “nuggets” and are also machines to communicate, to promote the films selected 212 . The example of the Cannes Film Festival is striking: the films in competition and out will be distributed in France and will be seen by producers , distributors and critics from around the world 213 . Similarly, during the fifteen-day festival takes place the Film Market , which allows artists lacking means to find a distributor. A film festival can therefore present a work to the world 214 .
Thus, along the film industry, film festivals are downstream of film production (design time) and upstream of the operation (time of theatrical release ). Specifically, the most important international festivals are located immediately downstream of the production. The festivals of national or regional influence take place just before the distribution in room .
Most festivals follow a regular annual or biennial 213 . In addition to questions of practical organization, this rate can remain exceptional in the event.
Here is a graph showing the number of festivals in Europe in 1996 213 :

Operating
Examples of operating

Street furniture advertising for movie posters

Entrance to the cinema with posters

Another view of the front of the theater

Program of cinema, posted and distributed to all individuals
After the stages of production and distribution , is the exploitation that comes down to the projection of films. The activity of an operator may be termed “artisan” or “industrial” by the number of halls of his complex: we talk about miniplex or multiplex . It can also be self-employed or employed: it will then depend of a national or international, as Gaumont , Pathé , UGC , Regal Entertainment Group or MK2 . The operator may itself, or through various distributors such as Warner Bros. , EuropaCorp or Buena Vista , fix its programming, and the change in case of failure of a film.
It was during the operation that are collected various recipes from a film, due either to the sale of a ticket , or to the sale of a derivative as a poster or CD for a soundtrack . These different recipes are then shared with the distributors , who pay back their own part in the production .
In France , the theater is not in any particular legal status, which gives a certain freedom to the operator 215 . Moreover, the “law Sweat” allows communities to contribute to the operation and investment of theaters 216 . This operation can help in difficult rooms, entries that are not sufficient to operate sustainably. Communities can also provide indirect support to cinemas less than 5000 entries , classified Arthouse , by exempting them from paying the business tax by section 1464-A 217 .
Nevertheless, it is a strict and regulated relationship is established between the distribution and exploitation 218 . In the contract of Terms film rental , it is granted to operators the right of public works in exchange for a payment that is proportional to revenues 218 . In addition to this payment, they must pay money to the Society of Composers, Authors and Music Publishers (SACEM) and compensation for the owners of the soundtrack 218 . In addition, the sale of a ticket involves payment of additional special tax (TSA) that allows the financing of the distribution, production or exploitation film 218 .
Here is a graph showing the film exhibition in the world, more precisely, by country, the number of theaters per million people 219 :

Audiovisual industry
Video editing

Various DVD , the major product from the 2000s in video editing
In 2001 , the video editing was 25% of the world, through the development of DVD , which is slowly replacing the videotape , which was then the head of sales with 36.5 million units sold and 59% of sales related to the video (in 2000 , the tape realized almost 77% of sales) 220 . The first film released in the form of video would Cheongchun gyosa released in theaters in 1972 and VHS in 1976  , the last film released on VHS in America would be A History of Violence in 2006 221 . Now, a successor to the DVD is set up: the Blu-ray disc that allows two hours of video in high definition or thirteen hours in Standard Definition. On 4 April 2008 , almost 530 Blu-ray discs were sold in the United States , against 250 in Japan 222 .
The growth of video is in part had to the new regulations that allow since 2001 the output of a video film in six months after its release in theaters 223 . The period was subsequently reduced CrossFit Denver to four months by the Creation and Internet law , and can be reduced to three months the favorable opinion of the National Cinema Centre and the moving image 224 .
The French are different from other Western Europeans by a consumer of media videos focusing more clearly at the expense of purchasing the lease in video store 225 . In 2002 , 85% of the French video was well spent on media ( VHS or DVD ) 225 . The same year, 70% of the European video averaged reserved for purchase. In parallel, 60% of purchases are made ​​in large areas of distribution ( Carrefour , Auchan , E. Leclerc , Geant 225 ).
However, this success primarily benefits the tying in American cinema . Indeed, unlike the VHS edition of the draw where the increase has the effect of limiting the costs of manufacturing unit, the DVD edition, where the main investment concerns the production of “Master”, has quickly economies of scale, when the draft increases. Thus, the DVD edition especially promotes the dissemination of commercial films, whose publishers have a global infrastructure, such as large U.S. majors 220 .
It is thus noted that six companies share almost 85% of video editing. In 2001 , Universal Pictures was leading the standings, thanks to the success of Gladiator , before 20th Century Fox Pathe Europa , which then came Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace 220 ​​.
However, with the evolution of Internet , the illegal distribution of movies over sharing software peer has become increasing. The European Commission concluded in its report that 5% to 7% of world trade based on piracy, almost 300 billion euros 226 . This therefore influences crescendo tying to video editing, like streaming . Yet in 2007 , the marketing research firm says the French are downloading less: they were 5,000,000 in 2006 against 2.3 million in 2007 227 .

The French Cinematheque hosting the BiFi
For several years the economy in the cinema has evolved. Agreements were signed between the movie channels and the American majors who have had a significant impact on the latter. The platform operators satellites sign of increasingly contracts with large production companies to access their catalog of films and thus secure their dissemination 228 . Canal + has agreements with five studios that are the Walt Disney Company , Universal Pictures , Columbia Pictures / TriStar , the 20th Century Fox and Warner Bros. . They give Canal + broadcast rights important 228 .
However, the agreements usually with majors increase the number of American films released, reducing the area of intervention of national retailers with chains of television , which also breaks the balance between the activity of independent distributors, film releases and television sales to 228 .
In France , there are companies to finance the film and audiovisual industry (or “Sofica”) and the national center of film and moving images that are specialized in the audiovisual medium. They are intended to help finance the production of films, and dissemination. In addition, the Film Library ‘s mission is to enrich the film, to ensure subsequent dissemination.
Awards ceremonies
A film awards ceremony is a ceremony organized by a public body or vested in the national cinema, such as foundations or academies. During the ceremony one or more awards may be made. In general it is the side art of a film that is noticed during the ceremonies 229 . It was in 1920 that goes up the first award, in the Photoplay , a film magazine U.S. 230 . However there are some who welcome the price commercial success , as the Goldene Leinwand (canvas gold) in Germany that rewarded each film more than 3 million viewers 231 . Nevertheless, it’s not just movies that are rewarded artists and technicians are also their contribution to the film. Examples include the Oscar for best director for the United States . These ceremonies usually have a monopoly character of their territory and reward priority national artists and technicians.
The award ceremony the best known around the world is that of the Oscars that rewards through countless awards the American films and foreign once a year at Los Angeles 232 . A few weeks before the ceremony takes place in Golden Globes , which is managed by the Hollywood Foreign Press since 1944 . Versus the ceremony of Razzie Awards reward the contrary the worst films or artists 233 .
Only films that have experienced a film exhibition in the country generally can compete. Thus, unlike the festivals that take place before the distribution , the awards ceremonies are held wow gold after the distribution of all films approached.
Among the awards ceremonies most famous film, we see for example the Academy Awards ( USA ), the Cesars ( France ), the Goyas ( Spain ) or BAFTA ( UK ).
Parallel to the academies and foundations, other organizations, such as associations of film reviews, some films are also distinguished.
Film techniques

Technical shooting

Shooting a video clip , in London
The technique used to create the image on the film is borrowed from the film shoot camera 234 . The printing is done by exposure to light to using a camera through a objective at the rate typical 24 i / s (frames per second), regulated by a quartz built into the camera. Initially of 16 i / s (one foot per second), the rate was increased with the advent of sound film 235 . Indeed, the quality of his ( bandwidth , wow , noise …) depends on the speed of the film 236 .
The principle of this impression is based on a redox reaction that sees the halides of silver lying in the emulsion be transformed to metallic silver when exposed to light 237 . After development, the exposed areas therefore have a very opaque black appearance. Unexposed areas Relevant Life Policy are rendered translucent after the fixator had cleared the support. Different shades of gray are due to the density greater or lesser extent silver salts revealed 238 . We obtain a good impression in ” negative “from which the element name.
Color reproduction on film is in two phases: color film is made ​​of three layers of silver halide superimposed and coupled to dyes . These dyes absorbing their complementary color, they are yellow, magenta and cyan, so these three layers are thus sensitive to the three primary colors : each red, green and blue . This produces an analysis trichrome 239 .

Scene from the movie Transformers , directed by Michael Bay
In the development process, we get rid of silver salts to keep only the colors of the emulsion 240 .
The negative, once developed, is based on a positive emulsion. Stage of the draw, carried out with a lantern additive, sources with three Red, Green and Blue, adjustable in intensity, the colored layers of negative realize the synthesis of colors to be reproduced from only the three primary components present in the negative.
The positive of projection is itself composed of three layers monochrome and therefore behaves as a color filter in front of the projection lantern. He thus made ​​a subtractive this “white” light, the color temperature of daylight to which the human eye is accustomed 241 .
The colorimetry is the science of measuring color 242 . There are different ways of measuring the colors but the most common is to use a thermocolorimètre , which defines a non-arbitrary color temperature of light source 243 .
The first issue of shooting is to achieve a correctly exposed image, density and color. To control the amount of light, the cinematographer uses a cell photo-sensitive – most commonly as incidental – and sets the aperture according to the measure 237 . The contrast adjustment is made ​​to the cell as reflected on the objects, most commonly the spot meter 244 . Choices of sources and adjustment of light is consistent with the sensitivity of the emulsion used and the possible use of filters in front of the camera .

Set of the film Alamo with Dennis Quaid
Once mastered this technical aspect, you must dial a light, aesthetically, will serve the purpose of the film, its script and the mood of different scenes, like the play of the actors while incorporating many technical and economic constraints. Easily distinguishable light contrast and density of a detective film , light softly and evenly from a comedy , for example 245 .
If the overall aesthetics of a film owes much to the light, its consistency can be achieved only if a work of collaboration between the various managers artistic director , firstly, but also designer , costume designer , or makeup .
The second issue concerns the context: composition of planes , aircraft movements, cutting scenes into shots. This work, executed by the framer 246 is also the fruit of close collaboration with the staging .
Finally, the cleanliness of their plans and sharpness is the responsibility of first assistant operator 247 .
Laboratory work

Film accompanied by a KEYKODE allowing their identification
A film laboratory offers a range of technical services for film industries 248 . In particular, the filmmakers use their services to develop the original negative, the transfer of magnetic media or digital, make copies of work, comply with the negative to the mount point, make copies of the series and calibrate, duplicate elements, make certain special effects, transfer a video film on 249 … This work is done by operators with knowledge of these various techniques 248 .
The film, when turned on silver film is given daily to a laboratory that is responsible for the development of (multi-step chemical process that is to stop, reveal, bleaching, fixing, cleaning and drying the negative ) 250 . This step results in a negative which is more sensitive , that is to say that we can expose it to light without risking any of the footage shot 250 .
The development is a critical phase and depends on a large number of parameters and their accuracy: constant temperature and imposed strict development time, specific chemical components concentrations. The work of interaction between chemicals in the bath with the photographic film is performed at a level close to the size of atoms 251 . It then pulls the positive in an additive printer (when the photograph is printed in subtractive) and it is positive in itself developed a chemistry similar to the negative chemistry.
The calibration is to tune the flow of the three channels (red, financial assistance for single mothers green, blue) of the printer to get the rendered color and density desired by the director of photography .
The “first positive”, drawn by guest chairs the laboratory as and of production, and which constitutes the ” rushes “, is presented to the production and technical team in the laboratory, screening room 252 . These presentations take place at the time of filming, daily if possible.
Today it is increasingly common to simply transfer the negative on video, the telecine . This is particularly relevant for the filming of a movie but also for future digital postproduction (virtual editing, special effects , digital calibration tape to tape …).
For the prints of operation, two solutions are possible from the negative mounted. The first is to make direct copies, but this requires to run on very fast machines this negative, which includes collages and is therefore fragile. Thus, this method is only used for movies based on few specimens 253 . Once a film is based on more than a dozen copies, using a second solution, including two additional steps in laboratory operations: drawing a interpositive , mounted from the negative, which will provide an inter-negative , kind of carbon copy mounted without gluing the negative, from which we draw the positive copies. After this step, the film is ready for the projection 253 .
When the master of the film is digital, you can transfer it to master or negative type intermediate (internegative interpositive).
Each operation performed in a film lab is expensive. The issue of payment by distributors is rather complex because of working time that is a coil of 60 m (or 2 minutes of 35mm film), which reveals the same time to a coil of 305 m (about 11 minutes) . Indeed, employees must, for both films, prepare the same number of parts and machines, so that the length of the film has little influence on the work involved in processing the film 254 .
Editing techniques

One of the first assembly machines
The film is first and foremost an art of editing 255 . Marcel Martin , in The Language Film , said it was “clear that the assembly (vehicle speed) is the notion most subtle and yet most essential aesthetics of film, in a word its most specific element 256 , 257 . ” The assembly has acquired, over time, an aesthetic autonomy 258 . It is based on the sequence of spaces and time , to make the work fluid . The assembly can be summed up in broadcasting to the assembly of several plans to form sequences which are at the end of the film.
At the beginning of cinema films made ​​little appeal to the assembly. Most films of the Lumiere brothers or Méliès were clips 259 . The few connections were clumsy 259 . It is with DW Griffith that actually appears in the editing Birth of a Nation in 1915 260 . During the year 1920 is the Russian film that will bring the greatest contribution to the theory of montage, including Lev Kuleshov and his Kuleshov effect 261 . The assembly will then allow the birth of tricks 262 .
Mounting is performed from the first positive, appointed rushes , which serves as working copy 263 . Cuts of the film are the “gluing” the scissors and tape 264 . Once editing is complete, the negative is cut and pasted laboratory .
Today, thanks to the computer , has developed the NLE (non linear) . The work is done from a digital copy of the negative 265 scanned or transferred to the telecine 263 . The entire post can, through this method, be made ​​entirely on computer. Through an output on magnetic tape, or directly from the mounting machine, the result is transferred on film.
The first stage of installation is the preparation: it is during the filming that all plans are collected. Thus, we speak of “equiped for rough assembly” those plans: you must select those who are good, according to the director 266 . Then you have to split the footage and put them one after the other, depending on the scenario . This step provides an initial viewing of the film, and facilitates subsequent assembly. However, with the development of NLE, this Logging tends to disappear, giving way to a rough cut, also called “first cut” 267 . At this point, the film is a limited audience, forced to keep secret the movie, for advice on the conduct of the images 267 . Final assembly, or “final cut”, has a major impact on the film and understanding 268 . It also determines its commercial success 268 . This step may be the opportunity for conflict between producers and the director , as when mounting Brazil of Terry Gilliam 269 . The United States , the directors’ union, the Directors Guild of America , allows artists to sign their film under the pseudonym ” Alan Smithee “when the production imposes its views on the assembly 270 . Otherwise sometimes two versions of the assembly are performed, one for production and one from the director (this is called the director’s cut ). But this possibility is reserved for major films. One of the most famous examples is that of Blade Runner by Ridley Scott released in 1982 , where the director was unable to impose its opinion during assembly, and the version of 1991 carried out according to the wishes of director 271 , 272 .
Sound techniques
At the pre
During preproduction , at the stage of scouting , the sound engineer is available on the constraints inherent in the sound settings selected (if the decor is loud, the sound level accordingly, will need to consider postsynchroniser dialogues.
During filming
Main article: Sound engineer .
In post-production

Neve analog mixing console VR60.
Sound editing
Once the installation finished images, the sound editing begins. This is a separate step of mounting, it is also, since the advent of stereo cinema 273 often performed by a different team 274 . It consists of adding sounds recorded during shooting to images, to enrich the emotional climate of the film adding sound effects, possibly the sound design of ambient sounds 274 . This is an important artistic step of mounting: it plays a major role, but the editor does not indent the composition 274 .
Music
Historically, the traditional French cinema has maintained an ambiguous relationship with the music . The New Wave was invented, like impressionist painting, filming on location ( the film comes out trays ). The soundtrack was limited ( in principle and constrained by ) the only sound recorded on set. The sound elements added in postproduction had a functional role (plug holes). Cinematic storytelling narrative excluded any sound other than the realism which the Cahiers du cinema have made ​​the apostles. Poor reproduction in mono soundtrack reduced to only dialogues and music.
If we compare, statistically, the duration of the music of French films to American films of the time, we arrive at an average of 15 minutes of music for 50 minutes against French films to American films.
In the mid-1980s, the film first crisis generated the emergence of a new genus, Blockbuster , a movie theater to spectacular effects (visual and audio) that can not appreciate all the quality that in a movie theater ( and not at home on VHS or DVD).
Miscellaneous
We also find sound effects , the dubbing , the audio mix done by a mixer in an auditorium .
Finalization
This step is akin to mastering
International version
Main article: International Version .
Broadcast formats
After proper mixing, the next step will be his or her bet (s) shaped according to the different operating modes ( diffusion ).
Film optical analog stereo, and multichannel support photochemical
Digital Cinema
Stereo TV
DVD and HDTV
Cinema and television in relief
Laboratory
Production of the film is finished, the next step for the image and sound, will be the (or) laboratory (s): formatting for (the) distribution (s) and possibly 275 , duplication.
Projection techniques

Film Projector Philips
The film comes in the form of a film (called “copy”), which are linked images, scroll them giving the impression of movement 276 . Slightly different, the film video is in the form of a magnetic tape or of a support digital which includes images coded 277 . In both cases the images are projected in sequence on a screen . Two phenomena are responsible for the illusion of movement: the persistence of vision that hides between the black image and the phi effect giving the impression that the succession of images did eventually form a single image that changes 276 . The phenomenon of retinal persistence and limited processing speed of visual system helps maintain the perception of light received by the eye when suppressing the change of frame that is still projected 276 . The eye therefore sees the succession of images presented as a scene unfolding before him, broken beats eyelids. The illusion of a moving image is the result of a tendency to regard the brain as similar images are views virility ex of the same object that has changed Denver Divorce Attorney or moved: it is the phenomenon of the effect phi 276 .

Magic lantern
In the vast majority of cinema halls use the base film 278 , 279 , where the projector was the failure to degrade over time, but it is universal 280 . For George Lucas , the future lies in digital cinema : the operator would receive or would download the support which would substantially reduce costs production and distribution 278 .
This is a film positive that passes a white best led tv light source (called “lantern”), at up to 24 pictures / second , in the case of sound projections. The projector lens can then make a sharp image, generally on a white screen 281 .
In the case of projectors to vertical loading, the oldest models, two devices were required for the projection of the different coils. For the spectator, it is possible to identify changing the web roll, by the appearance of a circle, at the top right of the image. Now, with the devices to horizontal plate, it is possible to mount the full coils on the same device 282 . In digital cinema , the film is stored on hard drives.
The first film with sound back to the gramophone , which was operated by hand, and thus put a major problem, that of synchronization with the image 283 , 284 . The sound was very quickly integrated, optically, on the edge of the film 285 . This is a lamp that illuminates the optical track: the intensity of light passing through the film is measured by a photoreceptor cell, which in turn transforms into an electrical signal sent to a conventional amplifier chain. On the films to 70 mm format , the sound is encoded on the film next to the image.
Animation techniques
We distinguish the animated cartoon. Indeed, the animated film uses various techniques to animate elements as real three-dimensional models, plasticine figures, etc..
However, like the cartoon , some animated films using the technique of shooting “frame”. The shooting frame by frame using the same techniques as the shooting classic, and the successive images each represent an instantaneous phase of the movement. When projecting these images also give about the illusion of movement 241 .

Gertie , one of the first stars in the history of animation 286
Émile Reynaud , French designer, is the precursor of the art of animation because it is in 1892 , before the advent of cinema , he began to be projected on screen, using a praxinoscope , its own drawings and hand-colored 287 . It remains today very little of him because he works himself to the destruction of despair because of the harm that he caused the appearance of cinematography 288 .
The best known of the “animated” is the character of Walt Disney , Mickey Mouse , who from his appearance on 18 November 1928 , gained a huge success 131 .
In the case of the cartoon, the camera is usually mounted vertically above the cartoon which is placed horizontally on a table 289 .
This device, known as bench also allows still picture reproduction in general. That’s when the camera photographs the drawings one by one in order to match the parts that must remain fixed. Of course the images are not taken at the same rate as for an ordinary film. By cons, when projecting the images flash at a rate of 24 well i / s 290 . For a film of 250 meters, or 9 minutes of screen, it takes a hundred hours to shooting only 241 . The animated part is photographed in a superposed position on the stationary part, because it is in another format called “celluloid”.
For the realization of two kinds of cartoons drawings are used. Funds, that is to say the scenery, the sets are made ​​of opaque sheets while the rest of the characters for example, are on transparent sheets called “cels” because of their major component, the acetate cellulose 291 . Drawing on these cels is done in Indian ink for outlines and gouache colors to 241 .
For traveling , one can use two different methods. In general, it is not using zoom ( lens to focal variable) or optical traveling. The camera animation stand is mounted on a column and can go up or down at will. The development is slaved to the vertical movement to ensure constant sharpness of the image. The second is to make drawings at different scales 241 .
Other techniques are used such as shadow play, paper cut, as in The Adventures of Prince Ahmed of Lotte Reiniger , made ​​in 1926 , the technique of ” pinscreen “of Alexander Alexeïeff in Night on Bald Mountain ( 1934 ), the animation of puppets, dolls as did Jiří Trnka and Wladyslaw Starevitch . You can also attend technical shooting of living persons photographed pixilation like robots 131 .
Today, these traditional techniques have virtually disappeared, leaving room for technical computing and graphics .
Audio description: cinema accessible to the blind
The ” audio description “(also called” audio description “) is a method of making films accessible to blind or visually impaired through a very text voiceover describing the visual elements of the work. The voice of the description is placed between dialogue or sound elements important in order not to harm the original work. It can be broadcast in wireless headphones so as not to disturb other spectators.
Cinématographe

Screening with the cinematograph (Drawing by Louis Poyet)
As a cinematograph or cinematograph , originally de Kinetoscope projection , called the apparatus Lumière company , the movie camera , copier and film projector in one, (“reversible”). In contrast to Dickson used the Lumières 35-mm film , simple perforation and gripper . The first complete demonstration of the cinematograph was held on 22 Held in March 1895, the first public on 28 December 1895.
Before the Lumière brothers in 1892 under the name of a potpourri of French inventor was Leon Guillaume Bouly patented.
Contents [ Hide ]
1 Technical Description
2 The project
3 Literature
4 links
5 See also
Technical Description

It is the first film-technical apparatus with gripper mechanism . In the present state of research is a first model comes from the chief mechanic of the photographic plate factory, Charles Moisson (1863-1943), in 1894 on behalf of the family, including Auguste Lumière, secret something built, in accordance with the sewing machine a perforated gripper mechanism (Fig. . 46 and 47). The circular eccentric on the central shaft led to heavy loading the film perforation, which consists of also circular holes. The hole spacing and thus the film step is 20 millimeters, the perforations have a diameter 2.8 mm. The Positionierabstand is +2. The picture window measures 20 by 25 millimeters.

In the course of 1895, then turned to the mechanical engineers Louis Lumière Jules Carpentier with a request for improvement of the mechanism. This led to later named after him cam, the “Came Carpentier,” the so-called equal thickness (Fig. 1). Paper film could be abandoned in favor of celluloid film, the basic material of the Lumière Celluloid Company of New York-related.

Now holding the gripper tips held before entering and withdrawing from the perforation of a moment, whereby the perforated film is spared much. Also the beater bars for advancing and retreating of the gripper (Fig. 93) were replaced by a closed control disk. The opening angle of the circular current cap is 170 degrees.
The drive is done by hand. The drive shaft is translated with a gearbox to the main shaft 8 to 1. With two turns of the crank handle 16 performs the cinematograph film circuits.
The Lumière cinematograph is used without elastic loops in the film. The incidence of this was the same time another Frenchman, Eugène Augustine Lauste when he 1895 Eidoloscope created for the family Latham.

After the revision of the apparatus with Carpentier it was a true reversible. After loosening a knurled nut on the center shaft can be exchanged for closure of the recording, the playback panel. This has 240 degree opening angle, as shown in the engraving. The Positionierabstand is now +3. Carpentier built 200 copies of the Société Lumière.
Because of the patent, the Carpentier on its own apparatus, gave the Lumière was repeated interruption of the light beam in the projection denied. Belonged in New York City saying, “Let’s got to the flicks” is related to the ideas of the Lumière, which took place there in 1896. Lumière films flicker-free display is historically false.

This patent relates to drawing a part of history. Carpentier reduces the dark phase with a small gear to 120 degrees, but not completely disappear in the projection fibrillation.
The project

Because of its ease of Cinématographe was quickly spread worldwide. Initially, the company sent out with contract operators in all directions. These were the first film reporter. Due to the technical limit of about one minute of film consumption (at 16 frames per second), the movie people over the years, but lost interest in the relatively expensive equipment offered. 1905 gave the Lumière on the project Domitor and sold all the material and the patents of the Société Pathé Frères. They deserved to cinematograph film and commercial converted to March 2009 some 65 million €.